Andrew Johnson, the 17th President of the United States, assumed office under the shadow of the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Johnson’s presidency (1865–1869) was marked by his contentious approach to Reconstruction and his frequent clashes with Congress. His lenient policies toward the South and opposition to civil rights legislation set the stage for a turbulent post-war period, culminating in his impeachment. Despite this, Johnson remains a controversial figure in U.S. history, often seen as an ineffective leader during a critical time for the nation.
Early Life and Background
A Humble Beginning
Andrew Johnson was born on December 29, 1808, in Raleigh, North Carolina. He grew up in extreme poverty after the death of his father when he was only four years old. His mother struggled to make ends meet, and Johnson never received formal schooling. Instead, he worked as a tailor’s apprentice, a profession that would help him develop a strong work ethic and an understanding of the struggles faced by ordinary Americans.
Self-Education
Despite his limited education, Johnson was determined to improve himself. He taught himself to read and write and eventually became an avid reader. This self-education played a significant role in shaping his political career, as Johnson was able to develop a deep understanding of politics and governance through reading and personal experience.
Early Political Career
Entering Local Politics
Johnson’s political career began in Tennessee, where he moved as a young man and eventually settled in the town of Greeneville. His first political involvement was at the local level, where he served as alderman and mayor of Greeneville. His political rise continued as he was elected to the Tennessee State Legislature, where he quickly earned a reputation for being a strong advocate for the common man, particularly working-class farmers.
Governor of Tennessee and U.S. Representative
In 1853, Johnson was elected governor of Tennessee, where he focused on issues like education and infrastructure. During his time as governor, Johnson became known for his staunch Unionism, especially in the face of growing Southern secessionist sentiment. His firm belief in preserving the Union would later shape his actions during the Civil War.
Johnson served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1843 to 1853 and again in the U.S. Senate from 1857 until 1862. Throughout his political career, Johnson opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories but believed that states should have the right to make decisions on slavery within their own borders.
Vice Presidency and Assumption of the Presidency
Joining Lincoln’s Ticket
In 1864, with the Civil War still raging, President Abraham Lincoln sought a vice-presidential candidate who could help unify the nation. Johnson, a Southern Democrat who had remained loyal to the Union during the war, was selected as Lincoln’s running mate. The choice was intended to appeal to Unionists in the South and bridge the divide between North and South.
After Lincoln’s assassination on April 14, 1865, Johnson, as vice president, assumed the presidency. He faced the monumental task of rebuilding the nation after the Civil War and integrating the Southern states back into the Union.
Presidency (1865–1869)
Reconstruction: Johnson’s Lenient Approach
Johnson’s approach to Reconstruction, the process of reintegrating the Southern states, was highly controversial. He favored a lenient policy, offering amnesty to most former Confederates and allowing Southern states to rejoin the Union without significant changes to their social or political systems. This approach was at odds with the more radical faction of the Republican Party, which called for greater protections for newly freed African Americans and a more stringent process for Southern states to regain their place in the Union.
Johnson’s policies did not address the needs of the newly freed African American population, and his opposition to civil rights measures led to growing tensions with Congress.
Vetoing Civil Rights Legislation
One of the key points of conflict during Johnson’s presidency was his veto of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which was designed to protect the rights of African Americans and provide them with equal protection under the law. Johnson believed that the bill was unconstitutional and too harsh on the South, and he vetoed it. However, Congress overrode his veto, making it the first time in U.S. history that Congress enacted legislation despite a presidential veto. This marked a growing divide between Johnson and the Republican-dominated Congress.
The 14th Amendment and Johnson’s Opposition
Another major issue during Johnson’s presidency was the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves. Johnson strongly opposed the amendment, believing it would shift the balance of power too far toward the federal government. His opposition to the amendment further strained his relationship with Congress, which was determined to pass it. The amendment was eventually ratified in 1868.
Conflict with Congress
Radical Republicans and Growing Tensions
As Johnson’s presidency progressed, tensions between him and the Radical Republicans in Congress escalated. The Radicals, led by figures like Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner, advocated for more aggressive Reconstruction policies, including the protection of African American rights and the imposition of harsh terms on the Southern states. They viewed Johnson’s leniency as a betrayal of the Union victory and a threat to the progress of civil rights.
The Impeachment Crisis
The conflict between Johnson and Congress came to a head in 1867 when Johnson dismissed Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War, without the approval of Congress. This move violated the Tenure of Office Act, a law passed by Congress to limit the president’s power to remove officials without Senate consent. In response, the House of Representatives impeached Johnson, accusing him of misconduct in office.
Johnson was brought to trial in the Senate, and while he narrowly avoided removal from office, he was acquitted by just one vote. His impeachment weakened his authority and further isolated him from both Congress and the American public.
Post-Presidency
Return to Politics
After leaving the White House in 1869, Johnson retired to his home in Tennessee. However, his political career was far from over. In 1875, he made a surprising return to politics when he was elected to the U.S. Senate, becoming the only president to ever serve in the Senate after leaving the presidency. Unfortunately, his time in the Senate was short-lived, as he passed away later that year on July 31, 1875.
Legacy and Historical Views
Andrew Johnson’s presidency remains one of the most controversial in U.S. history. His lenient approach to Reconstruction and his opposition to civil rights for African Americans have led many historians to view him as a failure during one of the most critical periods in American history. His impeachment, though unsuccessful, highlights the deep divisions between the executive branch and Congress during his time in office.
Legacy and Historical Assessment
Impeachment and Presidential Power
Johnson’s impeachment remains a significant event in the history of the presidency, setting a precedent for future conflicts between the president and Congress. While he was acquitted, the impeachment process highlighted the tension between the executive branch and the legislative branch, particularly in times of political division.
Reconstruction and the South
Johnson’s failure to support Reconstruction policies that would protect African American rights has made him a largely unfavorable figure in American history. His leniency toward the Southern states and his opposition to civil rights legislation undermined the gains made during the Civil War and left African Americans in the South vulnerable to discrimination and violence for many years.
Conclusion
Andrew Johnson’s presidency was defined by conflict, controversy, and a failure to navigate the challenges of Reconstruction effectively. His lenient policies toward the South, combined with his opposition to civil rights measures, have left a legacy of division and missed opportunities. While he narrowly escaped impeachment, his leadership during one of the most crucial periods in American history has been widely regarded as ineffective. Johnson’s presidency serves as a reminder of the complexities of Reconstruction and the challenges of healing a divided nation.